Contributions of ancient Arabian and Egyptian scientists in the development of physics and technology
Md. Wasim Aktar
Deptt. of Emerald. Chemicals, Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West Bengal, India.
Scientists have studied Islam deeply fundamental questions of physics. For example, Ibn Sina made a thorough study of phenomena such as force, motion, light, heat, vacuum, etc. Great progress has been done in theoretical and applied mechanics. A useful work has been done in the field of mechanics on the wheel axle, lever, pulley, inclined plane, windmill, water wheel, sprocket, etc. The physicist and astronomer al-Khazini wrote a book on mechanics, hydrostatics and physics, called Kitab Mizan al-Hikmah (Book of the balance of wisdom) which is the work's most remarkable medieval on these subjects. It gives a theory force of attraction of the earth (gravity) that universal force is directed towards the center of the universe, which was at the time to be the center of the earth. It includes tables of specific gravity of many liquids and solids (based on the work of al-Biruni), and a history of the subject, the weight of the air, observations on the capillary, using hydrometer to measure density and appreciation temperature liquids, the theory of the lever, the application of the balance in leveling and measuring time. Analysis and Samples this book have been published in Arabic and English. (1)
In another book on Al balance Khazini stresses the need to eliminate, as far as possible influences of temperature variation during the weighing. When al-Khazini other studies are considered, it seems to be a precursor to Galileo.
Al-Khazini's full name was Abu Abd al-Fath '-Rahman al-Mansur al-Khazini (or al-Khazin). He flourished about 1115-1121. He was a Greek (Rumi) slave. His master Al-Ali Al-Khazin Marwazi arranged for his own good, scientific and philosophical education in Marw. Al-Khazin compiled astronomical tables called Al-Zij al-Mu'tabar al-Sinjari (The esteemed Sinjaric tables) have been named after Ibn Ibn Sinjar Malikshah Alp Arsalan, and later governor of Khorasan, Sultan (1097-98 in 1157-58). They give the position of stars for the year 1115-1116.
Before al-Khazini, Umar al-Khayyam done more work on the balance. Ibn Sina and al-Razi contributed to the theory of equilibrium. Banu Musa (the son of Musa), which flourished during the reign of Caliph al-Mamun, wrote many works mechanically. An important work on the balance called Qarastun Farastün "or" attributed to them. Al-Razi (OC 923-24) made investigations on gravity specifically using the hydrostatic balance. This balance was called al-al-Mizan tabii (physical balance). (2)
Muhammad Ibn 'Ali Ibn al-Khorasani Rustam was a famous manufacturer of clocks and, therefore, it is called al-Sa'ati (watchmaker). Between 1146 and 1169, he built a clock placed in the Bab Jairün. (often called "Bab al-Sa'ah the door of the clock). Al-Sa'äti remained in charge its clock until his death in 1184-85. (3)
Another Muslim engineer of the 13th century was Abu-Isa ibn Isma'il Razzaz (son of commercial rice) Badi'al-Zaman al-Jazari. It was sponsored 577-578 to 601-602 AH 1181-1182 to 1205-1206 AC, by the leaders of Urtuqid Diyar Bakr, a district of Al-Jazeera. He wrote a treatise on the knowledge of geometric mechanical devices called al-Kitab fi al-hiyal Ma'rifat Handsiyyah, which was devoted to Urtuqid the Nasir al-Din Mahmud (reigned from 1200 to 1222). It deals mainly with hydraulics (elepsydras, fountains, etc.). This important work is interesting from a technical standpoint, and represents the best Arabic work on applied mechanics. It is divided into six parts. The first part dealing with various types elepsydras indicating either equal or temporal hours is most important. Muslims divided the day into twenty-four equal hours. But they adopted another type division. They divided the day and night each into twelve hours duration varies according to season. Such kind of hours were also used by Christians in Europe, for example, Italy, until the mid 18th century.
The book was translated into German, and comments on this subject have been written as well. (4)
Al's son Ridwan Sä'ãti repaired and improved clock and has also written a book to describe its construction and use. This book is an important source for the study of early Muslim clocks. Ridwan was engineer, doctor and poet, and had knowledge of literature and music. He played the flute. Originally it belonged to Khorassan. It has been appointed by the Prince Wazir al-Ayoubi Faiz Ibrahim and his brother Isa al-Muazzam. Ridwan also wrote a supplement to the treatise of Ibn Sina on grapes, and a commentary on the Qanun (Canon). (5)
Qaisar Ibn Abu al-Qasim, the Egyptian mathematician, astronomer (d. 1251 AC) was a celestial globe. He probably made improvements on the water-wheels and water mills. These improved varieties of water-wheels are still visible on the Orontes, and are among the glories of Hama. He built these waterwheels (Naura) for al-Muzzaffar al-Taqi al-Din Mahmud, the ruler of Hama in 1229 to 1244 AC (6)
The philosopher Abu Nasr al-Farabi has refuted the existence of a vacuum. He wrote a remarkable essay on the elasticity of the air. This is a original research work. (7)
Muslim scholars have an interest in determining the specific gravity of different substances. Ali Sanad ibn ' a scholar of the ninth century, made investigations on specific gravity. Al-Biruni determine the specific gravity of 18 precious stones and metals. Ibn Sina and al-Razi has also done research on this topic.
Ibn Yunus († 1009 AC) applied the pendulum to measure time. Al-Biruni developed a machine time based on the Roman calendar. It was constructed for use in the mosque of Ghazni. But the imam of the mosque has denied saying it was based on a non-Muslim work. To Al-Biruni was very upset. He said that the, the determination of time is a purely secular. It is therefore of little value if it is based on a calendar Muslim or a non-Muslim. Only convenience should be taken into account.
Al-Biruni made reference to a certain type of wells that are obtained by piercing the earth at this level of water is subjected to hydrostatic pressure in this case because pressure of water is drawn up as in natural sources. He correctly explains the action of these wells by the principle of communicating vessels. (8)
Muslims have developed techniques of swimming. They built the hot tub, steam called Hammam (from the Arabic root meaning Hamm heat). When the Crusaders came from Europe to East and experience the comfort of these baths, they have introduced in their own country.
Muslims were the first to implement the Directive on the property of the magnetic needle to determine the direction of their travel while traveling on SEA. The Chinese were the first to discover this property. Maritime trade between Muslims gave much importance to the southern tip of the needle to the north as is done today. This is probably because in some places like Syria and Asia Minor at the southern end was roughly towards Mecca. Thus, the needle tip gives the general direction of the Qibla. In the West, the compass was first of all used by Italian sailors. Some Muslims have referred the compass in their writings. For example, al Bailak-Qabajaqi in his book entitled Al-Kanz AHJAR describes the use of a variable compass attended by him to L242-43. (9)
'The Muslims were also the first to invent guns and cannons and use of explosives in them. The purpose of this invention was to launch balls at the enemy at long range. The Chinese have used sodium nitrate only. But the penetrating power explosives was discovered and used only by Muslims. Historians usually write first that guns were used in the war of Cressi, but from the writings of many Muslims, it is revealed that weapons had been used since long. In one of these writings there is a story that some officer appointed Ya'qub siege in 602 AH (1205 AC) Mehdra an African city that was under the control of its rebel leader, and attacked the walls with the help of sensors and machine guns. Of all the machines, it took a number of showers of large stones and bullets fire.
The instruction given by Ibn Khaldun in his history of the Berbers "also proves the use of firearms during the war. He writes: "Abu Youssef, Sultan of Morocco siege in 672 AH (1273 AC) in the city of Sijilmassa. He has installed instruments in front to besiege the city. These instruments consisted of Manjneeq, Urawa and Handam with which bits of iron were thrown. These bits have been filled in the box Handam, and explosives are stored behind them were burned. Its effect was strange and results could be called a law of Allah. A day with the help of a Manjneeq stone thrown by a portion of the wall fell, and then the attack was carried out on the town. (10)
Muslims have developed science of optics. Ibn al-Haytham (Latin Alhazen) made a significant contribution towards this science. Indeed modern optics began with him. Before Ibn al-Haitham is generally believed by the Greek, Roman and Muslim scientists that the rays are emitted from the eyes to the objects seen. Plato suggested that There was another series of radiation emitted by the object seen. Alexandrians believed that vision lies in the lens of the eye. Ibn Sina and al-Biruni also estimated that the radius is increased from the object to the eye. Aristotle's ideas were very close to modern design. The atomistic propose a theory atomical. Hunayn Ibn Ishaq in his book entitled "Questions relating to save the eye" theory has been somewhat that of Plato. In his opinion the lens was the central organ of vision. Both the strength of the visual from the brain and the image of the object from outside were received in the lens. Al-Razi, also, in his monograph on the nature of vision have shown that the eyes do not light shine. (11)
Ibn al-Haitham has changed the traditional view by putting forward the theory that the objects are seen by rays passing from them to the eye, and not by the reverse process. Most of his successors do not agree with his point of view, but Al-Biruni and Ibn Sina independently and fully agree with him. Ibn al-Haitham solved a number of optical problems on the basis of mathematical knowledge of his time.
Ibn al-Haitham treated with such a potpourri of topics like the structure of the eye, optical illusion, perspective, binocular vision, vision contours, shadows and colors old and catoptrics diopter with new developments, camera obscura, a problem of Alhazen, mirages, comets, the Milky Way arches in the sky, halos, etc.
Ibn al-Haitham conducted catoptrics search that contains the problem known problem of Alhazen. It is as follows: —
"From two points in the plane of a circle to draw lines meeting at a point on the circumference and making equal angles with the normal to this point. " This leads to an equation of the fourth degree. Ibn al-Haitham solved using a hyperbola intersecting a circle. It also resolved that we called al-Mahani's cubic equation.
Ibn al-Haitham has shown a marked increase in the experimental techniques. He did research on surfaces spherical and parabolic mirrors, spherical aberration and diopter. He noted that the relationship between the angles of incidence and reflection will remain constant. He described the magnifying power of a lens and studied atmospheric refraction. He said that the twilight only ceases or begins when the Sun is 19 degrees below the horizon and tried to measure the height of the atmosphere on that basis. It gave a better description of the eye and vision. He attempted to explain binocular vision, and gave a correct explanation for the apparent increase in the size of the sun and the moon horizon. He gave the first mathematical treatment of "camera obscura".
So it deals with problems that are now under at least seven subjects, including anatomy, physiology, psychology, mathematics, astronomy, physics and meteorology.
The full name of Ibn is al-Haytham Abu 'Ali Muhammad ibn al-Hasan Ibn al-Haitham. He was a native of Basra and was born in 354 AH (965 AC). He emigrated to Egypt, where he lived until his death. It was a noble person and a genius who had knowledge of many sciences. It was the greatest mathematician his age and one of the biggest opticians in history. He was well versed in medicine and the Arabic language. When the Caliph al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah who loved philosophy, has heard of Ibn al-Haitham, he had a great desire to see. Al-Hakim has been informed that Ibn al-Haitham revealed that had he been in Egypt, he could have done something in connection with the river Nile, so it will be beneficial in all cases whatsoever the water level was high or low. Ibn al-Haitham, the river water fell from a high place to lie on the territory of Egypt. Hearing this report Al-Hakim has become increasingly fond of the meeting of Ibn al-Haitham. Al-Hakim sent a large amount of money for him and persuaded him to come in his court. Ibn al-Haitham left for Egypt. When he arrived near Cairo al-Hakim went to receive him. They met in a village near Bab al-Qahirah (the gate of Cairo). Al-Hakim honor of him, provided all the facilities, and asked him to fulfill his promise about the River Nile. A group of workers was provided to assist in carrying out his plan. When Ibn al-Haitham was the site investigation and came to a place called "Janadil '(now Shalal called), located near Aswan, on high ground, he realized the difficulties encountered. Feeling unable to fulfill its promise, it became very ashamed, now he fears al-Hakim and get rid of him, he acted like a madman, and remained in a state of madness to the death of al-Hakim. Then he came to himself and settled in Qubbah near the door Jami'ah of al-Azhar, and engaged himself in writing books. He died in 1038.
Ibn al-Haytham is the author of numerous books. He summarized the works of Aristotle, and wrote comments them. He also summarized many medical works of Galen. His writings on mathematics and physics are 15 and on metaphysics and physics are the number of 44. His books include one on the plants and the other on the properties of simple and compound drugs. (12)
His Kitab al-Manazir (the thesaurus optical) is one of the major classics that have influenced scientific thought for more than six centuries. Latin, Hebrew and Muslim writers such as Roger Bacon, John Peckham, Witelo Ahmad Ibn Idris al-Qarafi, Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi, Levi Ben Gerson based their work on this great book.
Ibn Sina made a profound study of light. He observed that if the light is emitted due to the ejection of one sort of particles by the light source, the speed of light must be finite. (13) Al-Biruni observed that the speed of light is vastly greater than the sound. (14)
Nasir al-Din al-Tusi written two books on optics. One of them is entitled Al-Mabahith In'ikãs fi Al-Shu'a'at wa In'itafiha (research on reflection and refraction rays), contains evidence of equal angles of incidence and reflection.
The other is entitled "Kitab al-Tahrir Manazir. In the preface, the author notes that the objects are perceived because the rays of light emanating from them, but it is as if the rays from our eyes. (15)
Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi († 1311) who was one of the greatest scientist of all time presented his views on his work in optical astronomy. In one of these works, entitled "al-Nihaayat Idrak Dirãyat fi al-Aflak (Highest understanding of knowledge of the spheres), deliberates on issues of geometrical optics, the nature of vision, and finally the rainbow. It was the first to give a satisfactory account of the rainbow. His explanation of the rainbow is based on his study of the passage of a ray of light through a transparent sphere (waterfall). He discovered that the arc is formed when the rays are refracted twice and reflected times (or tunic in the case of arc-second) in the humid atmosphere. (16)
Another important physicist and mathematician of the 14th century, was Kamal al-Din Abu al-Hassan al-Faris. He wrote a book entitled 'al-Tanqih Manazir (Correction of optics) that is a comment and develop original on Ibn al-Haitham al-Kitab Manazir (Book of optics). It covers not only view physical and physiological, but also the meteorological perspective and many other topics. It includes comments on the prospect of series, color effects, etc.
Kamal al-Din suggested the use of hyperboloidal lenses to avoid spherical aberration. He gave an account of the refraction of light. According to George Sarton, this account shows the following facts: the speed of light is finite, but very large, the speed of light in different media is inversely proportional to the optical density (not same as the density of the material). The second of these facts seems to be a sketch of the wave theory of light against the theory particle.
Kamal al-Din made a number of experiments on camera obscura and improved use initiated by Ibn al-Haitham. It has shown that images obtained on a screen in a dark room with light rays passing through a narrow hole, are independent of the form the ho1e, and over the hole, plus images. It has also been shown that images of many objects are trained separately on the screen, but the pictures and instructions were reversed. With the help of the camera, he observed eclipses and movements of clouds and birds. (17)
Al-Hasan al-Rammah (the lancer) Najm al-Din al-Ahadab (the hunchback) wrote on military subjects. It flourished in Syria. He wrote two treatises on horsemanship and the art of war (1), Kitab al-Furusiyah wa Al-Munasab Harbiyah (Riding and ruses of war), (2) Al-Nihaayat Su'ul wa 'Umniya fi Ta'allum al-al-A'mal Furusiyah.
The book first deals with military matters such as the military operation, how to use spears, bows, siege engines, and the method of control at sea and the communication of fire, etc. It contains various pyrotechnic recipes, Al-Hasan considered saltpetre ground substance of pyrotechnics. He explained the methods of preparation and purification by means of potassium and repeated crystallization.
In the opinion of George Sarton, who is more important than it may seem, for the impurities of saltpetre are hygroscopic and therefore tend to destroy its value. To find saltpetre and its use is one thing, to purify it was another. (18)
Muslims have improved the art of shipbuilding, has taught the sailors of the Mediterranean to construct lighter boats or caravels (garaf), to caulk their boats with tar yet known in the Romance languages by the Arabic name gatran (tar FR, IT. caltrame)-to handle sails and ropes (HABL Ar). (19)
REFERENCES: —
1. A1-Khazini, 'Abd al-Rahman, Mizan al-Hikmah, Hyderabad Deccan, 1359 AH pp. 1-170.
2. Al-qift, 'Ali Ibn Yusuf, Tarikh al-Hukam, Leipzig, 1903, p. 271.
3. Sarton, George, Introduction to the History of Science, Carneige Institution of Washington, 1951, Vol. I, p. 632.
4. Ibid, pp. 631.
5. Ibid., 632.
6. Ibid., Vol. II, Part II, p. 623.
7. Al-qift, op. cit., p. 277.
8. Sarton, op. cit., vol. I, p. 707.
9. Ibid., Vol. II, Part I, p. 24.
10. Balgirami, 'Ali, Tamaddun-e-Arab (Urdu translation of a book in French by Lebon), Hyderabad Deccan, p. 441.
11. Ibid., Vol I, p. 609.
12. Ibid, pp. 721.
13 Isma'il Basha al-Baghdadi, al-Arifin Hadiyyah, Istanbul, 1951, Vol. II, p. 66.
14. Sarton, op., P. 707.
15. Ibid, pp. 709-713.
16. Ibid. vol. II, Part II, p. 1009.
17. Ibid, pp. 1018.
18. Ibid., Vol III, Part I, p. 707. Al-Farisi, Kamal al-Din al-Tãnqih Manazir, Decean Hyderabad, India.
19. Sarton op. cit., Vol. II, Part II, p. 1039.
20. Briffault, Robert, The Making of Humanity, Islamic Book Foundation, 1980 p. 205.
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